Jet Grouting: An Eco-Friendly, Earthquake-Resilient, and Cost-Effective Foundation Solution
Professor Dr. Engineer Md. Jahangir Alam
Department of Civil Engineering, BUET
Content Outline
Introduction:
Bangladesh is a land of alluvial soil. Siltation of soft clay/silt and loose sand formed the subsoil layers of Bangladesh. The subsoil layers consist of soft clay or loose sand, leading to frequent reports of buildings tilting or collapsing without any earthquakes. This suggests the potential for catastrophic damage in the event of seismic activity. Conventional footing or mat foundations can lead to settling and tilting due to the weight of buildings. Consequently, engineers prefer pile foundations, which can be costly. Jet grouting is a state-of-the-art technology designed to provide affordable and earthquake-resistant foundation solutions, which will be detailed in this article.
What is Jet Grouting?
Jet grouting is a technique for enhancing soil strength. A mixture of cement and water is known as grout. Special high-velocity grout, mixed with specific chemicals, combines with the soil to increase its strength, effectively creating “soilcrete” piles known as jet-grouted piles. Buildings up to 15 stories can be constructed on these piles. A significant advantage of this technology is its applicability to both soft clay and sandy soils, ensuring safety during earthquakes.
Why Use Jet Grouting?
Jet grouting is an effective method for creating soilcrete. It helps control settling or tilting of structures, enhances load-bearing capacity, creates impermeable cutoff walls for deep excavations, strengthens the foundations of old buildings, constructs retaining walls, and straightens tilted buildings. Specially designed jet grouting machines can work in existing structures with limited height, making it an efficient solution.Principles of Jet Grouting:
The core principle of jet grouting involves injecting grout at high speed into the soil, disrupting its existing structure and mixing the soil particles with the grout. This mixture forms a type of soil concrete. Based on the soil characteristics, single, double, or triple fluid jet grouting is employed, as per suggestion of geotechnical experts. The diameter and depth of jet grouted piles are determined considering the soil particle size, type, and building load. By controlling pump pressure, drilling rod rotation speed, and extraction speed, piles of desired diameters can be created. Jet-grouted piles don’t solely bear the building’s load; part of the load is transferred to the soil while the rest is redirected to stronger soil through the piles. This results in reduced costs and minimizes settlements.
Jet Grouting Procedure?
Jet grouting equipment is attached to a drilling rig, connected to a stationary grout production plant via pipes. The drilling rig is set up at the site, and drilling rods are driven through the soft soil until the desired depth is reached. Using a high-pressure pump, grout (a mixture of specific cement, water, and chemicals) is injected at high speed through the drilling rods, while simultaneously rotating and extracting the rods. The quality of jet grouting depends on the pump’s pressure capacity, the ratio of cement, chemicals, and water, and the total volume of the mixture. An experienced geotechnical engineer determines the appropriate mixture ratio, and any deviation can lead to risks.
Applications of Jet Grouting:
- Keeping excavation areas free from water during basement construction.
- Straightening tilted buildings.
- Strengthening old building foundations for safety or adding extra floors.
- Preventing water seepage through flood protection embankments.
- Reducing costs by inserting jet-grouted piles between Shore-piles
- Constructing roads along steep slopes in hilly areas.
- Before tunneling in soft soil, jet grouting is conducted to enhance ground stability, followed by the actual tunneling process
- Using jet grouting for river or coastal protection.
- Creating underground watertight walls.
Is Jet Grouting Environment Friendly?
To combat global warming, reducing carbon and greenhouse gas emissions is essential. Construction activities typically generate greenhouse gases, adversely affecting the environment. However, following certain principles can significantly mitigate these emissions:
- Utilizing local materials instead of imported products.
- Reducing cement usage, which contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions during production.
- Minimizing steel use, which also involves emissions during production and transport.
While jet grouting requires cement, it uses significantly less than traditional piling methods. Moreover, it does require sand and crushed stone, which would otherwise contribute to emissions during extraction and transport. Thus, jet grouting is far more environmentally friendly than conventional piling methods.
Steps for Jet Grouting?
- Conduct soil tests from reliable organizations.
- Design the foundation and structure by experienced civil engineers who are members or fellows of the Institution of Engineers, Bangladesh (IEB).
- Hire honest and experienced contractors.
- Complete the jet grouting process.
- Optionally, insert a reinforcement cage into the jet grouted pile.
- Conduct soil tests and static load tests one month after jet grouting to ensure the quality of the piling.
- Cut the tops of the jet grouted piles to the same level.
- Optionally, cast a small cap on the jet grouted piles.
- Backfill the area with compacted coarse sand.
- Optionally, place geogrid between layers of sand.
- Cast footing or mat on top.
Conditions for Designing Jet Grouted Piles
Jet grouting allows for buildings up to 15 stories, provided the following conditions are met:
- Analyze the building for potential tilting or displacement during earthquakes or cyclones. If there is a risk, avoid jet grouting. Factor of Safety against sliding and tilting must be less than 1.50.
- Ensure that the building load and height are uniform across all areas. If different heights exist within the same building, careful design is required to prevent tilting.
- Verify that soil layers beneath the building are uniform. If needed, conduct Standard Penetration Tests (SPT) at intervals of 20 feet. If the soil layers are relatively uniform, jet grouting is feasible, although careful design is necessary for varying layers.
Problems and Solutions of Precast Driven Piles
Precast piles are cast in advance and inserted into the ground after curing, either through hydraulic push or hammering. Currently, a type of round pile called PHC pile (Pre-stressed Hollow Concrete pile) is available, which has a hollow interior. A significant advantage of precast piles is that their quality can be guaranteed at 100%. If the quality is poor, they may break during driving, allowing for the damaged pile to be discarded and replaced with a new one. However, there are several notable disadvantages of precast driven piles:
- Jointing Requirement: For longer piles, joints must be created, which can be resolved if done correctly.
- Increased Diameter for Longer Piles: When extending the length of a pile, increasing its diameter becomes necessary, which is impractical. Slender piles may fail during an earthquake.
- Liquefaction Risks: In sandy soils, liquefaction during an earthquake can cause precast piles to fail like slender columns. Therefore, larger size cast in situ piles or jet-grouted piles should be considered.
Various types of machines are used for driving piles into the ground, including:
- Hydraulic Push Pile Driving Machines
- Diesel Hammers
- Manual Hammers
Diesel hammers can drive precast piles to any depth. However, in urban areas or near existing buildings, the vibrations can cause damage or cracking. For this reason, diesel hammers are often unsuitable.
Hydraulic push pile driving machines can drive piles without any vibrations, but they may not reach the required depths. While these machines can achieve the necessary load capacity with shorter length piles, the risk of reduced capacity and potential building collapse due to soil liquefaction during earthquakes is a concern. Additionally, these machines are large and heavy, making them costly for small projects (up to 10 katha). In many cases, site access may be limited due to narrow roads.
Manual hammers can drive piles but are limited in depth, and the vibrations can potentially damage nearby structures. Consequently, using manual hammers is often impractical.
The above discussion clearly highlights the limitations of precast piles. To overcome these challenges, jet grouting offers a timely, sustainable, environment friendly, cost-effective, and earthquake-resistant solution.
Problems and Solutions of Cast in Situ Piles (bored piles)
Cast in Situ (bored) piles are created by using machines to drill deep holes in the ground, inserting a cage of rods inside, and then pouring concrete. These piles can be made in any diameter and depth. The biggest disadvantage of situ piles is that achieving good quality with local winches and tripods is extremely challenging. Due to a lack of skilled technicians and labor, controlling the quality of situ piles is not easy. Before pouring the concrete, the accumulation of soft mud and sand at the bottom of the pile significantly reduces its load-bearing capacity.
Bentonite slurry, a mixture of sticky mud and water, is crucial during the situ piling process. Without using bentonite slurry, the shape of the borehole may become irregular, leading to soil collapse around the sides. To cut costs, many people avoid using this slurry, which negatively impacts the quality of the cast in situ piles.
There are two methods for creating cast in situ piles:
- Rotary drilling rig
- Percussion winch machine (Bangla method)
Good quality cast in situ piles can be made using a rotary drilling rig, although it is expensive. For smaller diameters and fewer piles, the percussion method can be more economical, but achieving quality cast in situ piles with this method is quite difficult. Therefore, jet grouting presents a timely, sustainable, environment friendly, cost-effective, and earthquake-resistant solution.
How Are Jet Grouted Piles Environment Friendly, Cost-Effective, and Earthquake-Resistant?
- Cost-Effectiveness: Jet grouting does not require the use of rods, sand, or gravel, making this technology more economical.
- Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The production, importation, and transportation of materials like rods, sand, and gravel contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, jet grouted piles are significantly more environmentally friendly compared to conventional piles.
- Independent Movement During Earthquakes: Since jet grouted piles do not have a direct connection to the building’s footing or mat, the building can slightly shift left and right on the sand layer during an earthquake, reducing the impact of seismic forces.
- Prevention of Liquefaction: Fine sand can behave like a liquid during an earthquake, a phenomenon known as liquefaction, which can lead to building collapse. Jet grouting in fine sand prevents liquefaction, thereby making jet grouted piles earthquake resistant.
In What Types of Soil Jet Grouting Applicable?
Jet grouting is applicable in clay and sandy soils. The effectiveness of jet grouting should always be verified by a geotechnical expert.
In What Types of Soil Should Jet Grouting Must Not Be Done?
Jet grouting is ineffective in blocky, large boulder, and gravel soils. It also does not yield good results in peat or clay soils with a high organic content. While jet grouting works excellently in clay and sandy soils, it is ineffective in sandy soils where a significant amount of water is flowing, as the water washes away the grout.
Benefits of Jet Grouting
- Buildings remain safe during earthquakes.
- The tendency for buildings to tilt or settle is reduced.
- Foundation costs decrease by 20-40%.
- Environmental pollution is minimized.
Methods to Test the Effectiveness of Jet Grouting
One month after jet grouting, testing can demonstrate the effectiveness of the grouting.
- Fifteen days after jet grouting, soil is excavated to see whether jet-grouted piles have been formed inside the soil, and the diameter is measured.
- One month after jet grouting, core samples can be taken to perform a compression test to check the strength of the jet-grouted piles.
- One month after jet grouting, a static load test on the piles can prove the effectiveness of jet grouting.
Fill out the form below to inquire about Grouting
References:
Abramovich GN (1963) General properties of turbulent jets. In: Schindel L (ed) The theory of turbulent jets. MIT Press, Cambridge, pp 3–49
Arroyo M, Gens A, Croce P, Modoni G (2012) Design of jet-grouting for tunnel waterproofing. 7th International Symposium on Geotechnical Aspects of Underground Construction in Soft Ground; 16–18 May 2011, Rome, Italy. https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.3005.6328
Arson C, Juge B (2012) A hollow sphere model to dimension soilcrete columns. GeoCongress 2012. ASCE, Oakland, CA
Atangana NPG, Shen JS, Modoni G, Arulrajah A (2018) Recent advances in horizontal jet grouting (HJG): an overview. Arab J Sci Eng 43(4):1543–1560. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-017-2752-3
Basu A, Aydin A (2006) Predicting uniaxial compressive strength by point load test: significance of cone penetration. Rock Mech Rock Eng 39(5):483–490
Bienfait P, Hingant P, Mariotti G, Guilloux A, Lemaout JN (1996) The geological accident of the Hurtières tunnel on A43. International workshop of the AFTES (French Association of Underground Works), Chambéry, October 1996, pp 353–363
Brill G, Burke G, Ringen A (2003) A ten-year perspective of jet grouting: advancements in applications and technology. Third International Conference on Grouting and Ground Treatment, pp 218-235. https://doi.org/10.1061/40663(2003)101
Bui HH, Sako K, Fukagawa R (2007) Numerical simulation of soil–water interaction using smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) method. J Terrramech 44:339–346
Burke GK (2004) Jet grouting systems: advantages and disadvantages. In: GeoSupport 2004: Drilled shafts, micropiling, deep mixing, remedial methods, and specialty foundation systems, Orlando, pp 875–886
Burke GK, Cacoilo DM, Chadwick KR (2000) Super-jet grouting: a new technology for in situ soil improvement. Proceedings of TRB 2000, Washington D.C.
Celma JJ, Carrión MA (2003) Design and control parameters for jet grouting. XIII European Conference Soil mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Prague, Czech Republic
Chai JC, Shen SL, Zhu HH, Zhang XL (2004) Land subsidence due to groundwater drawdown in Shanghai. Géotechnique 54(3):143–148. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2004.54.2.143
Chai JC, Miura N, Koga H (2005) Lateral displacement of ground caused by soil–cement column installation. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 131(5):623–632
Chai JC, Carter JP, Miura N, Zhu HH (2009) Improved prediction of lateral deformations due to installation of soil–cement columns. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 135(12):1836–1845
Coulter S, Martin CD (2006) Single fluid jet grout strength and deformation properties. Tunn Undergr Space Technol 21(2006):690–695
Covil C, Skinner A (1994) Jet grouting—a review of some of the operating parameters that form the basis of the jet grouting process. Grouting in the ground, proceeding of conference institution of civil engineering, Thomas Telford, London, pp 605–629
Croce P, Flora A (1998) Jet-grouting effects on pyroclastic soil. Rivisita Italiana di Geotecnica 2/98, pp 5–14
Croce P, Flora A (2000) Analysis of single-fluid jet grouting. Géotechnique 50(6):739–748. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2000.50.6.739
Croce P, Modoni G, Russo, G (2004) Jet-grouting performance in tunnelling. In: GeoSupport 2004. Drilled shafts, micropiling, deep mixing, remedial methods, and specialty foundation systems, pp 910–922. https://doi.org/10.1061/40713(2004)78
Croce P, Flora A, Modoni G (2014a) Technology. In: Jet grouting: technology, design and control. Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, pp 9–25
Croce P, Flora A, Modoni G (2014b) Jet-grouted structures. In: Jet grouting: technology, design and control. Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, pp 97–121
Dhouib A, Magnan JP, Guilloux A (2004) Soil improvement techniques: history, geotechnical investigations, applications and economic data. ASEP-GI 2004 -Vol. 2 Magnan (ed.). Presses de l’ENPC/LCPC, Paris, pp 557–595
Du YJ, Jiang NJ, Shen SL, Jin F (2012) Experimental investigation of influence of acid rain on leaching and hydraulic characteristics of cement-based solidified/stabilized lead contaminated clay. J Hazard Mater 225-226:195–201
Du YJ, Jiang NJ, Liu SY, Jin F, Singh DN, Pulppara A (2014a) Engineering properties and microstructural characteristics of cement solidified zinc-contaminated kaolin clay. Can Geotech J 51:289–302
Du YJ, Wei ML, Reddy KR, Liu ZP, Jin F (2014b) Effect of acid rain pH on leaching behavior of cement stabilized lead-contaminated soil. J Hazard Mater 271:131–140
Durgunoglu HT, Kulac HF, Oruc K, et al (2003) A case history of ground treatment with jet grouting against liquefaction, for a cigarette factory in Turkey. In: LF Johnsen, DA Bruce, MJ Byle (eds) Third International Conference on Grouting and Ground Treatment, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States, 10–12 Feb 2003, pp 442–463. American Society of Civil Engineers
Eramo N, Modoni G, Arroyo M (2012) Design control and monitoring of a jet grouted excavation bottom plug. Proc. of the 7th Int. Symposium on Geotechnical Aspects of Underground Construction in Soft Ground, TC28 IS Rome, Viggiani ed., Taylor & Francis Group London, pp 611–618, 16–18 May 2011, ISBN 978–0–415-66367-8
Eskisar T (2015) Influence of cement treatment on unconfined compressive strength and compressibility of lean clay with medium plasticity. Arab J Sci Eng 40(3):763–772. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-015-1579-z
Essler R, Yoshida H (2004) Jet grouting. Ground improvement, 2nd edn. Taylor and Francis, New York, pp 160–196
Evangelista S, Giovinco G, Wanik L (2015) Single vs multi parameter calibration for the numerical simulation of submerged flows in jet grouting applications. Int J Mech 9:252–259
Flora A, Modoni G, Lirer S, Croce P (2013) The diameter of single, double and triple fluid jet grouting columns: prediction method and field trial results. Géotechnique 63(11):934–945. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.12.P.062
Gingold RA, Monaghan JJ (1977) Smoothed particle hydrodynamics—theory and application to non-spherical stars. Mon Not R Astron Soc 181:375–389
Gladkov IL, Malinin AG, Zhemchugov AA (2011) Strength and deformation characteristics of soil-concrete as a function of jet-grouting parameters. In: Geotechnical Engineering: New Horizons Proceedings of the 21st European Young Geotechnical Engineers’ Conference Rotterdam, pp 75–78
Guatteri G, Kauschinger JL, Doria AC, Perry EB (1988) Advances in the construction and design of jet grouting methods in South America. International Conference on Case Histories in Geotechnical Engineering. Paper3. http://scholarsmine.mst.edu/icchge/2icchge/icchge-session5/3
Haykin S (1998) Neural networks: a comprehensive foundation. US, Prentice Hall 842 pages
Ho CE (2007) Fluid-soil interaction model for jet grouting. In: Grouting for ground improvement: innovative concepts and applications, Denve, pp 1-10
Liu H, Zhou H, Kong G, Qin H, Zha Y (2017) High pressure jet-grouting column installation effect in soft soil: theoretical model and field application. Comput Geotech 88:74–94
Lunardi P (1997) Ground improvement by means of jet grouting. Ground Improvement 1:65–85
Martin II JR and Olgun CG (2006) Liquefaction mitigation using jet grout columns—1999 Kocaeli earthquake case history. Ground Modification and Seismic Mitigation (GSP 152). pp 349–358. American Society of Civil Engineers (2003)
Miki G (1973) Chemical stabilization of Sandy soils by grouting in Japan. 8th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, pp 395
Modoni G, Bzòwka J (2012) Analysis of foundation reinforced with jet grouting. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 138(12):1442–1454. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000718
Modoni G, Croce P, Mongiovi L (2006) Theoretical modelling of jet grouting. Géotechnique 56(5):335–347
Modoni G, Bzówka J, Pieczyrak J (2010) Experimental investigation and numerical modelling on the axial loading of jet grouting columns. Architecture Civil Engineering Environment, the Silesian University of Technology, No. 3/2010, pp 69–78
Modoni G, Wanik L, Giovinco G, Bzówka J, Leopardi A (2014) Numerical analysis of submerged flows for jet grouting. Ground Improvement, Vol 169, Issue GI1, Institution of Civil Engineering, pp 42–52
Morey J, Bachy (1992) Jet grouting in construction. Revue Francaise de Geotechnique 61:17–30
Morey J, Campo DW (1999) Quality control of jet grouting on the Cairo metro. Ground 559(Improvement 3):67–75
Mosiici P (1994) Jet grouting quality control. Grouting in the ground, Proceedings of the ICE, Thomas Telford, London, pp 227–235
Ni JC, Cheng WC (2014) Quality control of double fluid jet grouting below groundwater table: case history. Soils Found 54(6):1039–1053
Ochmański M, Modoni G, Bzówka J (2015a) Prediction of the diameter of jet grouting columns with artificial neural networks. Soils Found 55(2):425–436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2015.02.016
Ochmański M, Modoni G, Bzówka J (2015b) Numerical analysis of tunnelling with jet-grouted canopy. Soils Found 55(5):929–942. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2015.08.002
Ribeiro D, Cardoso R (2017) A review on models for the prediction of the diameter of jet grouting columns. Eur J Environ Civ Eng 21(6):1–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/19648189.2016.1144538
Shen SL, Luo CY, Bai Y, Kim YH, Peng SJ (2009a) Instant solidification of soft ground horizontally using jet grouting. Contemporary Topics in Ground Modification, Problem Soils, and Geo-Support. Geotechnical Special Publication No. 187, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, pp 257–264
Shen SL, Luo CY, Xiao XC, Wang JL (2009b) Improvement efficacy of RJP method in Shanghai soft deposit. In: Han J, Zheng G, Schaefer VR, Huang M (eds) Advances in Ground Improvement (GSP 188). ASCE Press, Reston, pp 170–177
Shen SL, Xu YS, Han J, Zhang JM (2012a) State of the practice of grouting and deep mixing in China—a recent ten-year review. In: Johnsen LF, Bruce DA, Byle MJ (eds) Grouting and Deep Mixing 2012, Geotechnical Special Publication No. 228, vol 1. ASCE, Reston, VA, pp 343–356 [NSFC410, NSFC-JSPS]
Shen SL, Wang ZF, Xu YS, Kim YH (2012b) State of practice of jet grouting in Shanghai: from technology development to scientific research. International Symposium on Lowland Technology (ISLT2012), 11 to 13 September 2012, Bali, Indonesia 18
Shen SL, Wang ZF, Xu YS, Bai Y, Peng SJ (2012c) An innovative technology of horizontal jet-grouting with less impact on surroundings. International Symposium on Advances in Ground Technology and Geo-Information (IS-AGTG), pp 207–214.1–2 Dec 2011, Singapore
Shen SL, Wang ZF, Sun WJ, Wang LB, Horpibulsuk S (2013a) A field trial of horizontal jet grouting using the composite-pipe method in the soft deposit of Shanghai. Tunn Undergr Space Technol 35(2013):142–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2013.01.003
Shen SL, Wang ZF, Yang J, Ho EC (2013b) Generalized approach for prediction of jet grout column diameter. J Geotech Geoenviron 139(12):2060–2069. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000932
Shen SL, Wang ZF, Horpibulsuk S, Kim YH (2013c) Jet-grouting with a newly developed technology: the twin-jet method. Eng Geol 152(1):87–95
Shen SL, Wang ZF, Ho CE (2014b) Current state of the art in jet grouting for stabilizing soft soil. Ground improvement and geosynthetics, GPS 238 ASCE, pp 107–116
Shen SL, Wang ZF, Cheng WC (2017a) Estimation of lateral displacement induced by jet grouting in clayey soils. Geotechnique, ICE 167(7):621–630
Shen SL, Wu YX, Misra A (2017b) Calculation of head difference at two sides of a cut-off barrier during excavation dewatering. Comput Geotech 91:192–202
Shibazaki M (1996) State of the art of grouting in Japan. Proc. IS-Tokyo’96, the 2nd Int. Conf. of Ground Improvement and Geosys-tems, Japanese Geotechnical Society, Tokyo, pp 851–867
Shibazaki M (2003) State of practice of jet grouting. Grouting and Ground Treatment, New Orleans, pp 198–217
Shinsaka T, Yamazaki J, Nakanishi Y, Komiya K (2017) Development of the multifan-shaped jet grouting method of ground improvement. In: Gazzarrini P, Richards TD Jr, Bruce DA, Byle MJ, El Mohtar CS, Johnsen LF (eds) Grouting 2017: jet grouting, diaphragm walls, and deep mixing. ASCE, Honolulu, pp 1–10
Tinoco J, Correia AG, Cortez P (2016) Jet grouting column diameter prediction based on a data-driven approach. Eur J Environ Civil Eng 1–21
Toraldo C, Modoni G, Ochmański M, Croce P (2017) The characteristic strength of jet-grouted material. Geotechnique 68:262–279. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeot.16.P.320
Tornaghi R, Pettinaroli A (2004) Design and control criteria of jet grouting treatments. Proceedings of ASEP–GI international symposium sur l’amelioration des sols en place. Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussees, Paris, vol 1, pp 1–24
Wang ZF, Shen SL, Yang J (2012) Estimation of the diameter of jet-grouted column based on turbulent kinematic flow theory. Grouting and Deep Mixing 2012. Geotechnical Special Publication No. 228, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, pp 2044–2051
Wang ZF, Shen SL, Ho EC, Kim YH (2013a) Jet grouting practice: an overview. Geotech Eng J SEAGS & AGSSEA 44(4):88–96
Wang ZF, Shen SL, Ho EC, Kim YH (2013b) Investigation of field installation effects of horizontal twin-jet grouting in Shanghai soft soil deposits. Can Geotech J 50(3):288–297. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2012-0199
Wang ZF, Shen SL, Ho CE, Xu YS (2014) Jet grouting for mitigation of installation disturbance. Proc Inst Civ Eng Geotech Eng 167(GE6):526–536. https://doi.org/10.1680/geng.13.00103
Wang ZF, Shen SL, Yin ZY, Xu YS (2015) Rapid field evaluation of the strength of cement stabilized clayey soil. Bull Eng Geol Environ 74(3):991–999. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-014-0643-3
Wang ZF, Shen JS, Cheng WC (2018) Simple Method to Predict Ground Displacements Caused by Installing Horizontal Jet-Grouting Columns. Math Probl Eng 2018:1-11, Article ID 1897394. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/1897394
Wanik L, Mascolo MC, Bzόwka J, Modoni G, Shen JSL (2017) Experimental evidence on the strength of soil treated with single and double fluid jet grouting. Proc. of the grouting 2017: grouting, deep mixing, and diaphragm walls, Honolulu, July 9-12, 2017
Wu YX, Shen SL, Xu YS, Yin ZY (2015b) Characteristics of groundwater seepage with cutoff wall in gravel aquifer. I: field observations. Can Geotech J 52(10):1526–1538. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2014-0285